Pallavas Art and Architecture

Pallavas Art and Architecture

by | Dec 27, 2024 | Ancient Indian History, History, Pallavas

The Pallava king was an art lover and patronized art and architecture immensely. As a result, a new style emerged in Indian art history. This style is called ‘Dravidian style’. The best art monuments were built during the Pallava period, following the Dravidian style. Pallava architecture can be divided into 2 parts according to its development.

1. Cave temples,

2. Temples,

1. Cave temples:

Cave temples can be divided into two categories.

a) Stambhamantapas,

b) Monolithic temples.

a) Stambhamantapas:

Since this style developed during the reign of Mahendravarman I, it is also called the Mahendravarman style. The cave temples of Stambhamantapas are found on a 100-foot-high rock hill in Mahabalipuram. Brick, wood, metal or mortar were not used in the construction of Stambhamantapas. Simple pillared mantapa containing one or two sanctuaries. The main feature of this style is that the front of the pillared mantapa contains a row of seven feet pillars.

b) Monolithic temples:

This style is known as the Narasimhavarman style because it developed during the time of Narasimhavarman. Mantapa carved in this style are found in Mahabalipuram. The 8 most important such chariots are Bhima, Arjuna, Dharmaraya, Nakula, Sahadeva, which are named after the Pancha Pandavas, while the other two are Ganesha Ratha and Ollaiyan Kutti Ratha. The longest and most complete chariot is Dharmaraja Ratha. It shows features of the Pallava style. Bhima, Ganesha and Sahadeva Ratha are carved in a square shape. They consist of two and three stories. The Draupadi Ratha is the smallest chariot, while the Bhima Ratha is the largest. Each chariot is made of a single solid rock and each chariot has the design of a temple.

2. Temples:

The temples of the Pallava period can be divided into

a) Rajasimha style,

b) Aparajita style temples.

a) Rajasimha style:

Rajasimha was the author of this style. The works of art of this style are the coastal temple in Mahabalipuram, the Ishwara temple and the Mukunda temples, the Kailasanatha temple built in bronze and the Vaikuntha Perumal temple are temples with tall towers in this style. The sculptures of such temples contain full-length idols of kings and queens.

Shore Temple:

The ‘Shore Temple’ in Mahabalipuram is one of the important temples of the Pallava period. The important features of the Pallava architectural style are seen in this temple. The temple, which is located in the sea, has been damaged by the waves due to the storm. The Kailasanatha temple has a pyramidal spire, a flat bhavaniya mantapa and lions carved on the pillars of the mantapa. The temple consists of a front hall, a hall and a sanctum sanctorum in the Pallava style. All the features of the Pallava style are seen in this temple. Granite stone is used for the lower part of the temple. Sandstone is used for the upper part.

The Vaikuntha Perumal temple is larger than the Kailasanatha temple. The temple consists of a sanctum sanctorum, antarala and a front hall. A gopuram is found above the sanctum sanctorum.

b) Aparajita style:

The buildings belonging to the 9th century AD are identified as ‘Aparajita style’ and are called by the same name. The Aparajita style is a clear example of Chola art. In this style, the lingas are built in a circular shape.

Sculpture:

Sculpture also developed during the Pallava period, the best example being the ‘Devagangeya Bhusparsha’ or ‘Gangavatarana’ sculpture at Mahabalipuram. The sculpture is carved in a single block of stone. The block is 99 feet long, 45 feet wide and 30 feet high.

Mahendravarman I was given the title ‘Chittakarapuli’ (Tiger among painters) because he greatly encouraged painting. The scenes of Anantashaya, Mahishasuramardini and Lord Krishna holding up Govardhana in the Mantapa of Mahabalipuram are a sight to behold.

The development of mural painting can be seen in the cave temples of the Pallava period. There are paintings of Apsaras in dancing postures at Sittannavasal.

Conclusion:

After observing the art development of the Pallavas of Kanchi, the famous art expert ‘Persi Brown’ opined that the Pallavas laid the foundation for the development of the art style of South India. V.A. Smith has said that ‘the history of architecture and sculpture in South India began at the end of the 6th century’.

Overall, the Pallava period is considered to be a period of cultural splendor.

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Local Self Government during the Chola Period

Local Self Government during the Chola Period

by | Dec 27, 2024 | Ancient Indian History, Cholas, History

The village administration during the Chola period was very distinctive. The Uttara Merur Inscription of Cholaparantaka gives a clear picture of the village administration of the Cholas. The village administration was looked after by the Gram Sabha, in which the Chola officials acted as advisors and observers.

According to the Uttara Merur Inscription, there were two assemblies in the village administration. They were the ‘Ur’ and the Sabha. The Urs existed in most of the villages. The ‘Sabhas’ were found in the villages which were endowed to the Brahmins. In some villages both the ‘Ur’ and the ‘Sabha’ were found.

The Uttara Merur (Changalpet district) inscription is carved on the wall of the Vaikuntha temple. It consists of two inscriptions issued in the 12th and 14th years of the reign of the first Parantaka. The first statute contains the constitutional rules of the Gram Sabhas, the second statute contains a long explanation of the rules and the revised rules. According to the statute issued in the 14th year of the reign of Parantaka I in 921 AD, each of the 30 divisions in the village was to nominate one candidate for final selection. Certain qualifications and disqualifications were prescribed for these nominated members.

Qualifications to be possessed by members:

A candidate for election had to possess the following minimum qualifications.

1. The candidate should be the owner of at least 1/4 veli (one and a half acres) of tax-paying land.

2. He should reside in a house built on his own homestead.

3. He should be more than 35 years and less than 70 years of age.

4. Should have knowledge of Vedic mantras and Brahmins, otherwise he should have land as big as a fence and he should be well versed in one Veda and one commentary.

5. Among those who had the above qualifications, those who were well versed in business and virtuous, honest and pure in mind were selected.

Disqualifications:

Despite having the above qualifications, those who had the following qualifications were not allowed.

1. A person would be ineligible for re-election if he had been in any committee continuously for the past years.

2. A candidate who had not submitted proper accounts and other information while in the committee and his close relatives would be ineligible to contest the election.

3. A person against whom there was a charge of the first four of the five great sins, namely, killing a Brahmin, drinking alcohol, theft and adultery, would be ineligible for election and his relatives would be ineligible.

4. Ignorant, embezzlers, those who ate forbidden food. Those who had relations with lower castes and did not perform penance rites were disqualified.;

The members of the Gram Sabha were selected on the basis of the above qualifications and disqualifications.

Method of selection:

Each village had wards or divisions. One candidate was selected from each ward for the Gram Sabha through election. The names of the persons contesting the election were written on palm leaves and placed in a wide-mouthed vessel. Then, in the general assembly, the name of the representative selected was announced by a child lifting a ticket from the vessel (lottery system – Kuduvolai). The term of the selected member was one year.

Village Committees or Variyams:

Out of the 30 selected members, important committees were formed

1. Annual Committee (Samvatsara Variyam) This committee had 12 members.

2. Thottivariam (Garden Committee) The committee had 12 members.

3. Vidhivariam (Garden Committee) This committee had 6 members.

Apart from the above major committees,

1. Panchwara Samiti: 6 members,

2. Ponsariam (Gold Committee): 6 members.

Their term of office was 360 days. The number of committees and the number of members varied from village to village, the members of the committees were called ‘Variyaperumakkal’. The Gram Sabha was held in the village temples. In some villages, there were committees called Mahasabha and Perungiri, the members of which were called Perumakkal.

Powers and functions of the Gram Sabha (Committees):

The Gram Sabha had the power to manage all the affairs of the village.

1) The Gram Sabha had jurisdiction over private land, and the General Assembly handled the transfer of private property. Permission from the Central Government was required for the transfer of property.

2) Land revenue was assessed and collected based on the conversion of forest and barren land into agricultural land, and the production of cultivated land. Landowners could pay a large sum of money at once instead of paying land revenue every year.

3) When land revenue was not paid properly, the land could be auctioned and the money collected was collected.

4) The central government was responsible for measuring the land. However, the permission of the Mahasabha had to be obtained.

5) The Gram Sabha had the power to collect a special tax for rural development, and the amount collected from land revenue, excluding the special tax, had to be deposited in the central government treasury.

6) Many committees were appointed to look after the administration of a large village, and there were many officers to assist them. A committee called Nayattar (Justice Committee) was a part of the Mahasabha, and the function of this committee was to detect crimes, resolve conflicts, and disputes.

7) The Gram Sabha had fixed that certain items should be sold in a specific area of ​​the village. Taxes were levied and collected on the traded items. Plantation Management Committee

Conclusion

The Chola dynasty stands as a remarkable example of advanced local self-governance in Ancient India. Their village-level administration, characterized by assemblies like ur, sabha, and nagaram, showcased democratic principles and participatory governance. These assemblies, supported by committees (variyams), handled responsibilities such as tax collection, irrigation, temple maintenance, and judicial functions with autonomy and accountability.

The Uttaramerur inscriptions of the 10th century provide a detailed account of their electoral process, qualifications and disqualifications for candidates, and the roles of various committees. These inscriptions reveal a sophisticated system that emphasized transparency, fairness, and record-keeping, reflecting a deep understanding of governance.

The Cholas’ emphasis on participatory administration, coupled with their ability to address local needs efficiently, remains a testament to India’s rich democratic heritage, leaving an enduring legacy of effective grassroots governance.

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Amoghavarsha I: The Ashoka of the South

Amoghavarsha I: The Ashoka of the South

by | Dec 27, 2024 | Ancient Indian History, History, Rashtrakutas

Amoghavarsha I, also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupatunga I, was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, reigning from 814 to 878 CE. His rule, which spanned an impressive 64 years, remains one of the longest precisely dated monarchial reigns in history. His reign marked a period of unprecedented growth and flourishing in literature, culture, and architecture, making him one of India’s most revered emperors.

The Rise of a Great Monarch

Born in 800 CE, Amoghavarsha ascended to the throne in 815 at the tender age of 14, after the death of his father, Emperor Govinda III. His early reign was marred by internal strife, as several rebel factions and neighboring kingdoms challenged his authority. Despite these early challenges, Amoghavarsha, with the support of his loyal uncle Kakka and trusted admiral Bankeya, swiftly re-established his control by 821, overcoming multiple rebellions, including one led by the Western Ganga dynasty. In the face of adversity, he implemented a policy of diplomacy, securing marital alliances that brought peace with the Gangas, Chalukyas, and Pallavas.

A Visionary Ruler

Amoghavarsha’s achievements were not limited to military victories. His most lasting legacy lies in his contributions to literature, culture, and religion. He was a patron of the arts, literature, and scholarship, fostering a golden age of Kannada and Sanskrit literature. Amoghavarsha himself was a scholar and poet, co-authoring Kavirajamarga, the earliest extant literary work in Kannada. His passion for literature was evident in his support for scholars such as Mahaviracharya, Jinasena, Virasena, and Sri Vijaya.

His intellectual prowess extended beyond literature. Amoghavarsha is credited with authoring Prashnottara Ratnamalika, a religious work in Sanskrit, showcasing his deep understanding of spirituality. Despite being a follower of Jainism, he was tolerant of all religions, extending his patronage to Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism alike. His devotion to Goddess Mahalakshmi was so great that he offered his finger as a sacrifice to save his subjects from a plague, earning him the admiration of his people.

The Magnificent Capital of Manyakheta

One of the most remarkable feats of Amoghavarsha’s reign was his relocation of the Rashtrakuta capital from Mayurkhandi (modern-day Bidar) to Manyakheta (present-day Malkhed, Karnataka). The new capital city was designed to rival the grandeur of Lord Indra’s celestial abode. The capital was marked by its elaborate architecture, showcasing the finest craftsmanship of the time. This city became the epicenter of cultural and intellectual activity during his reign.

A Diplomatic Mastermind

Amoghavarsha was not only a formidable warrior but also a master of diplomacy. His reign was characterized by several key diplomatic achievements. He successfully defeated the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi in a decisive battle at Vingavalli, after which he secured a marriage alliance with the Chalukyas to ensure peace. Similarly, he forged strong alliances with the Pallavas by marrying his daughter to Nandivarman II, further strengthening his influence in South India.

His efforts in diplomacy extended beyond the subcontinent. The Arab traveler Sulaiman, who visited his court in 851 CE, described Amoghavarsha as one of the four great kings of the world, alongside the Roman Emperor, the Chinese Emperor, and the Khalifa of Baghdad. This admiration highlights Amoghavarsha’s stature on the global stage during his time.

Legacy and Cultural Contributions

Amoghavarsha’s contributions to culture were monumental. Under his patronage, Kannada language and literature flourished. He supported the creation of several architectural marvels, including the Jain Narayana Temple at Pattadakal, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. His reign also saw the construction of the Neminatha Basadi at Manyakheta and a basadi at Konnur, all of which continue to stand as testaments to his architectural vision.

Amoghavarsha’s reign is remembered not only for its military and political successes but also for its cultural vibrancy and religious tolerance. His reign brought stability and prosperity to the Rashtrakuta dynasty, making him a legendary figure in Indian history.

The Peaceful End of a Great Reign

Amoghavarsha voluntarily retired from the throne in 877 CE, leaving behind a prosperous empire and a legacy that would endure for centuries. His peaceful and scholarly nature earned him the title “Ashoka of the South,” a fitting comparison to the legendary Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. Today, Amoghavarsha I’s reign stands as a beacon of enlightened leadership, cultural flourishing, and religious tolerance in Indian history.

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The Legacy of Badami Chalukya Architecture: A Blend of Tradition and Innovation

The Legacy of Badami Chalukya Architecture: A Blend of Tradition and Innovation

by | Dec 27, 2024 | Ancient Indian History, Badami Chalukya’s, History

Badami Chalukya architecture is a remarkable style of Hindu temple architecture that evolved between the 5th and 8th centuries CE. Emerging in the Malaprabha river basin of present-day Bagalkot district in Karnataka, India, this architectural style left an indelible mark on South Indian history. Known for its unique combination of Dravidian and Nagara styles, Badami Chalukya architecture is sometimes referred to as the Vesara or Chalukya style. Over time, it influenced the later architectural developments in the region, including the Western Chalukya architecture of the 11th and 12th centuries.

Origins and Evolution of Badami Chalukya Architecture

The earliest examples of Badami Chalukya architecture date back to around 450 CE, when the Badami Chalukyas were vassals of the Kadambas of Banavasi. The style was perfected in Badami and Pattadakal, two key centers in Karnataka, where the Chalukya kings commissioned numerous temples.

The architects and artists of this period experimented with various styles, blending the Nagara and Dravidian styles in innovative ways. Badami Chalukya architecture includes two types of monuments: rock-cut temples (cave temples) and structural temples built above ground.

Badami Cave Temples: An Early Masterpiece

The Badami cave temples are some of the most iconic rock-cut structures in South India. These temples feature three basic components: a pillared veranda, a columned hall, and a sanctum carved deep into the rock. Early experiments in rock-cut architecture were first attempted in Aihole, where three cave temples were constructed in Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain styles. However, the style was refined and perfected in Badami, where four magnificent cave temples were built.

One notable feature of the Badami cave temples is the running frieze of Ganas (semi-divine attendants) carved in relief along each plinth, displaying them in various playful postures. While the exterior verandas of these temples remain relatively plain, the interiors are rich with sculptural symbolism, showcasing the mastery of the Chalukya artists.

Art critic Dr. M. Sheshadri praised Chalukya art by noting, “They cut rock like Titans but finished like jewellers,” highlighting their exceptional craftsmanship. The Chalukya cave temples maintain a fine balance between versatility and restraint, as described by critic Zimmer.

Structural Temples of Pattadakal

Pattadakal, located in northern Karnataka, is home to some of the most sophisticated structural temples of the Chalukya dynasty. Among the ten temples at Pattadakal, six are built in the Dravidian style, while four follow the Rekhanagara style. The Virupaksha temple is perhaps the most renowned structure, closely resembling the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram, which predates it by a few years.

The Virupaksha temple is a comprehensive temple complex, featuring a central structure with a Nandi pavilion in front and a walled enclosure entered through a gateway. The sanctum, or main shrine, is accompanied by a Pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path) and a mantapa (pillared hall). The mantapa is adorned with perforated windows, enhancing the temple’s aesthetic appeal. Art critic Percy Brown noted that the sculptures in the Virupaksha temple “flow into the architecture in a continuous stream,” contributing to the seamless integration of art and architecture.

Revival of Chalukya Architecture in the Vijayanagar Empire

The influence of Badami Chalukya architecture resurfaced centuries later in the pillared architecture of the Vijayanagar Empire. The caves of the Vijayanagar period are replete with finely engraved sculptures of Hindu deities such as Harihara, Trivikrama, Mahisa Mardhini, and others, along with a variety of animal and foliage motifs.

Key Temples of the Badami Chalukyas

The Badami Chalukyas were prolific builders, leaving behind a legacy of magnificent temples across Karnataka. Some of the most important temples associated with the Badami Chalukyas include:

Temples at Pattadakal
  • Virupaksha Temple
  • Sangameswarar Temple
  • Kashivisvanatha Temple (Rashtrakuta)
  • Mallikarjuna Temple
  • Galganatha Temple
  • Kadasiddeshvara Temple
  • Jambulinga Temple
  • Jain Narayana Temple (Rashtrakuta)
  • Papanatha Temple
  • Naganatha Temple
  • Chandrashekara Temple
Temples at Aihole
  • Lad Khan Temple
  • Huchiappayyagudi Temple
  • Durga Temple
  • Meguti Jain Temple
  • Ravanaphadi Temple
Temples at Badami
  • Cave 1 (Shiva)
  • Cave 2 (Vishnu as Trivikrama or Vamana, Varaha, Krishna)
  • Cave 3 (Vishnu as Narasimha, Varaha, Harihara, Trivikrama)
  • Cave 4 (Jain Tirthankara Parsvanatha)
  • Bhutanatha Temples
Art and Architecture of the Chalukyas: A Cultural Revolution

The Chalukyas of Badami played a pivotal role in the evolution of South Indian architecture, known as “Chalukyan architecture” or “Karnata Dravida architecture.” Their legacy includes the construction of over a hundred temples, both rock-cut and structural, primarily in the Malaprabha river basin in Karnataka. This architectural tradition would later influence the art of the Western Chalukyas in the 11th and 12th centuries.

Chalukyan architecture is distinguished by its use of local reddish-golden sandstone, which was carved using a technique known as “subtraction.” The rock-cut cave temples, like those at Aihole and Badami, demonstrate the Chalukyas’ mastery in sculptural design. These temples typically feature a simple exterior but reveal intricately designed interiors, including pillared verandas, columned halls, and shrines carved deep into the rock.

Notable Temples and Structural Innovations

Some of the most renowned temples built by the Chalukyas include:

1. Aihole Temples:

The Lad Khan Temple, Durga Temple, and Huchimalligudi Temple are notable for their distinctive designs, such as the perforated stone windows at Lad Khan and the northern Indian style tower of the Durga Temple.

2. Pattadakal Temples:

The Virupaksha and Papanatha temples stand out for their exceptional fusion of Dravidian and Nagara styles.

3. Mahadeva Temple at Itagi:

Known for its intricate carvings and ornamental design.

The Chalukyan Legacy

The Chalukyan dynasty’s contributions to Indian architecture are unparalleled. The temples and cave complexes they left behind are a testament to their advanced architectural skills, blending both artistic creativity and religious symbolism. The Vesara style they pioneered remains a hallmark of South Indian architecture, influencing later architectural developments during the Vijayanagara Empire and beyond.

Conclusion

The Badami Chalukya dynasty’s legacy in art and architecture continues to captivate historians, architects, and travelers alike. With their innovative blending of Dravidian and Nagara styles, the Chalukyas built some of the most iconic temples in South India. From the rock-cut cave temples of Badami to the grand structural temples of Pattadakal, the Badami Chalukya architecture stands as a proud testament to the creativity, craftsmanship, and devotion of this ancient dynasty.

Today, these architectural wonders not only offer a glimpse into the past but also serve as symbols of the Chalukyas enduring influence on the cultural and architectural landscape of India.

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Hiuen Tsang-A Note (600-664 AD)

Hiuen Tsang-A Note (600-664 AD)

by | Dec 27, 2024 | Ancient Indian History, History, Vardhan's

Hiuen Tsang was born in China in 600 AD. He was attracted to Buddhism from his childhood. Thus, he became a Buddhist monk at the age of 20. Later, he had a great desire to come to India.

His purpose:

1. Dream of seeing India, the birthplace of Buddha and the motherland of Buddhism.

2. Desire to become holy by undertaking a pilgrimage to places associated with Buddha.

3. Desire to study Buddhist scriptures in their original language.

4. Plan to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.

5. Desire to bring Buddha’s relics, idols and some Buddhist works to China.

6. The vision to write a work about the things he saw and heard in India and his experiences. At that time, Chinese people had to get permission from the emperor to go abroad. But when the Chinese emperor did not give permission, Hiuen Tsang was very upset. He decided to reach India by any means. Without telling the emperor, he ignored him and set off for India.

He crossed the Indus River and reached Takshashila by walking along the Chinese border. Then he reached Kashmir and stayed there for two years. There he studied Buddhist scriptures. Then he reached the capital of Harsha, the king of the North. The fact that a Chinese had undertaken a pilgrimage to India and was a great scholar of Buddhism attracted Harsha. Harsha developed a close friendship with him. He even gave Duan Tsang a ‘royal hospitality’. Under his influence, he converted to Buddhism. To receive him, he held the Kannauj and Prayag conferences. Both were led by Duan Tsang. He finally proclaimed the supremacy of Buddhism. He defeated many Hindu and Jain scholars at the Kannauj conference, and was honored by Harshavardhana by riding him on an elephant.

From 630 to 644 AD, Huyan Tsang traveled throughout India. The places he visited as a pilgrim were Kapilavastu, Gaya, Kushinagar, Benares, as well as Kashmir, Gandhara, Andhra, Kanchi, Maharashtra and Karnataka. While visiting Gandhara, he saw the Bamiyan Buddha. He also visited the empire of Pulakesiya. Then he praised his brave deeds, the generosity of the Kannadigas and the richness of his heart.

While returning from India, he took the relics and idols of Buddha with him. He returned to China (in 644 AD) with 657 palm-leaf scriptures collected here, loaded on 20 horses. There was a fear of offending the king. But the Chinese king received him with respect. Qian Tsang began to record the things he saw in India in a book called Si-yu-ki. He also translated many Buddhist works into Chinese. He also established a sect called ‘Hungfu’ and spread Buddhism.

Huian Tsang recorded many ten things in his book Si-yu-ki. He wrote about the political, social, economic and religious conditions of that time, the customs and beliefs of the people, the traditional surrenders, the practice of untouchability, the geographical situation, the honesty of the people, the situation of Buddhism, etc. These are valuable documents for the creation of history of that time. According to Dr. V.A. Smith, the historical importance of Si-yu-ki cannot be overstated. Therefore, it is fitting to call Duan Tsang the ‘King of Travelers’ (King of Travelers).

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Golden Age of Gupta

Golden Age of Gupta

by | Dec 27, 2024 | Ancient Indian History, Guptas, History

The Gupta period is known as the Golden Age. This is due to the remarkable progress achieved in various fields during the Gupta period.

1. The Gupta kings united a vast territory and ruled a large empire.

2. Great kings like Samudragupta and Chandragupta Vikramaditya II ruled the Gupta dynasty. They eliminated foreign rule and established a stable administration.

3. The Gupta kings established peace in the empire and led to the all-round development of the empire.

4. Economically, the Gupta period was a period of prosperity and prosperity. Trade and commerce were at their peak.

5. There were many other poets, scholars, writers and playwrights like Kalidasa, Basa, Vishnu Sharma, Shudrakas and others who enriched the literary field.

6. The Gupta era was the time when the entire world was in a deep sleep in the field of science. It is a matter of pride that great scientists like Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, who were the light of knowledge for the entire world, were in the Gupta era.

7. Religiously, although Jainism and Buddhism went on the path of decline, only Hinduism was revived, and the Hinduism of the flower reached its peak.

8. Hindu art and architecture rose and flourished, and Indian art, free from foreign influence, blossomed perfectly during the Gupta era. It led to the new Manvantara.

If we look at the opinions of various scholars.

According to Burnett:

The Gupta period is like the period of Pericles in Greece and Augustus in Rome’

According to Smith:

The Gupta period can be compared to the Elizabethan and Stuart periods in England’

According to Max Muller:

The Gupta period was a period of revival of Hinduism’

According to Dr. Kumaraswamy:

The Gupta period was not a revival of Hinduism. Rather, it was a period of high elevation’.

For the above reasons, the Gupta period is called the Golden Age of Indian culture.

It is a myth:

There is also an opinion that the idea of ​​a Golden Age during the Gupta period is a myth, an idea. Romila Thapar, D.N.J., R.D.Sharma, D.D.Kosambi etc. have argued that the Golden Age is false. According to them,

1. The idea of ​​superiority was limited only to the upper classes. But the situation of the lower classes was worrisome.

2. During the Gupta period, feudalism existed. It was known by various names such as Jahagir system and Palegariya system. According to this, donations were made to temples and Brahmins. Thus, the farmers became enslaved by others. They had to give some part of the produce of the land to this feudal lord. As a result, the condition of the farmers became worrisome.

3. The priestly class became dominant and the caste system became complicated

4. Economic progress was limited to the upper class only.

5. The exploitation of the common people by the swindlers continued.

6. The trade, commercial and industrial system deteriorated.

7. Sanskrit literature did not reach the common people. It became the language of scholars and the court and was kept away from the people.

8. The revival of Hinduism was the revival of the varnashrama religion that it had kept in its womb. As a result, the caste system became even more rigid. The idea of ​​upper-lower became more widespread. The condition of the lower caste people became worse than animals. Equality became zero.

Conclusion:

The British were ruling then. They were denigrating Indian culture and history. In such a situation, the idea of ​​’Golden Age’ was brought to awaken the people and ignite the spark of nationalism. But now there is no need for it. Thus, the Golden Age of the Gupta period can be limited only to the upper class, the Brahminical religion, the Sanskrit language, literature and the arts. Otherwise, the ‘Golden Age’ can be recognized as a myth.

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